To determine the concentration Essay Example for Free

To determine the concentration Essay To determine the concentration of unknown standard sodium hydroxide solution and the enthalpy change of neutralization between different pairs of acid-base used (Thermometric titration) Principle of method: Neutralization is the reaction between an acid and a base, which is an exothermic reaction. In this experiment, two methods are used to determine the concentration of sodium hydroxide solution and the enthalpy change of neutralization. H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l) Method 1 is to measure the temperature change of the reaction mixture when different definite ratio of acid and base are reacted. There are totally 7 ratios. For each ratio, the initial temperature of acid and base is recorded. When they are mixed, the final temperature of the mixture is recorded so that: Let Va, Vb, Ta, Tb, T be the volume of acid, volume of base, initial temperature of acid, initial temperature of base and final temperature of mixture if they are not reacted (which is actually the initial temperature of mixture before reaction) respectively. Thus, Final temperature of the mixture after reacted T = Temperature change due to reaction. Method 2 is to measure the temperature of the reaction mixture when each small portion of acid are added to a fixed amount of base solution with using titration of acid against base. For both of the method, different pairs of acid and base are used and compared. To find the concentration of sodium hydroxide solution, the volume ratio of acid to base which makes the maximum temperature change(which means the reaction is most complete) should be found out and so: (Since the basicity of both acid and base is 1) By conservation of energy, the enthalpy change of neutralization = heat change of solution The density and specific heat capacity of solution are assumed to be equal to those of water since the differences between them are negligible. Results: Method 1 Using nitric acid: (A graph is attached at page 6) Volume of HNO3(aq) (cThis result was acceptable since it was consistent and close to the actual value. The enthalpy change of neutralization using nitric acid was found to be -47. 65kJ and -51. 48kJ respectively by method 12. The enthalpy change of neutralization using ethanoic acid was found to be -48. 24kJ and -61. 11kJ respectively by method 12. The enthalpy of neutralization found out in this experiment was not reliable because the result was not consistent for method 12 and there were great errors in the experiment. The most significant evidence that shows the result was not reliable was that theoretically, the enthalpy change of neutralization between ethanoic acid and sodium hydroxide should never be higher than that between nitric acid and sodium hydroxide. This is because nitric acid is a strong acid while ethanoic acid is just a weak acid that it only slightly ionized in water. Therefore extra energy was needed to ionize the ethanoic acid molecules so that the enthalpy change of neutralization of ethanoic acid should be less negative than that of nitric acid. However the result of this experiment contradicted with the above statement, so that the results of this experiment were not reliable. The most significant error in this experiment was heat loss to surrounding. Although foam cup was already used in the experiment, the upper surface of solution also produced great heat loss to the atmosphere. Also, there may still be heat loss through the cup. This error was more significant in method 2 since a period of time was used to titrate the solution. During the time of titration, a lot of heat can be transferred to the air and thus the recorded temperature would be decreased. As a result, the calculated enthalpy change of neutralization would be lower than the actual one. To reduce this error, a Styrofoam cup instead of a polystyrene cup can be used since Styrofoam is a better insular of heat than polystyrene. Some cotton wool can be used to wrap the cup in order to further reduce the heat loss to surrounding. Also, a lid can be used to cover the upper mouth of the cup in order to reduce the heat loss to surrounding. However, the lid should allow the thermometer to stir the solution and also allow the burette to add acids into it in method 2. Obviously, the titration in method 2 must be carried out quickly in order to minimize the time for the heat to be lost from surrounding, and thus reduce the above error. The second error was the fluctuation of room temperature. In method 1, the initial temperature measured and the temperature of the solution just before reaction might be different. This was because of the change in room temperature since it would affect the temperature of solution by thermo equilibrium. In method 2, the room temperature before the titration and during the titration might be different. This would lead to an error on the measurement of temperature as the same case in method 1. To reduce this error, a more constant temperature in the laboratory can be constructed by an air-conditioner. This can reduce the error brought from the fluctuation of room temperature. In the experiment, method 1 is more suitable to determine the enthalpy change of neutralization since the temperature was measured just after the reaction in method 1 but the temperature was measured for several times in method 2 and this lead to error in the measure of temperature. However, method 2 is more suitable to determine the concentration of sodium hydroxide solution since the number of times of measuring the temperature of solution was much more than that in method 1. Then the peak of the graph can be found out more accurately. Thus the volume of acid used with the highest temperature change can be more accurate. Based on the results of this experiment, the enthalpy change of neutralization was more negative with weaker acids, having same base. However, this statement was obviously wrong since in weaker acids, some energy was used to ionize the acid molecules. Theoretically, the enthalpy change of neutralization should be more negative with stronger acids. This was not shown on the results in this experiment since the error was too large. Conclusion: The concentration of the sodium hydroxide solution was successively found out and it was acceptable, but the enthalpy of neutralization found out was not reliable since it was not consistent and it contradicted to the theoretical values. On the whole, the results was not acceptable and so the objective of this experiment was not fulfilled. Reference: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Styrofoam http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/polystyrene.

Polymer formulation

Polymer formulation CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Pigments are additives in a polymer formulation which provide countless possibilities to designers who want to differentiate their product. Legislation and uprising environmental awareness has led to the gradual phasing out of heavy metal inorganic pigments and increased usage of organic pigments. Despite their good heat stability, light fastness, tinctorial strength and low cost, certain organic pigments are widely known to cause significant warpage in polyethylene mouldings (even at pigment concentrations as low as 0.1% wt).[1,2] This phenomenon is especially common in large thin-walled mouldings such as lids, bottle crates and trays.[3] It is generally accepted that the warpage phenomenon is caused by the nucleating effect these organic pigments have on polyethylene. They act as nucleating agents, increasing crystallisation rate and altering the morphology of mouldings. Morphological changes cause higher internal stress which leads to distortion.[2] Adding on to the problem, different organic pigments nucleate polyethylene to different degrees, making it impossible to produce mouldings with identical dimensions using identical processing conditions when a variety of pigments are used.[4] Numerous attempts have already been made, with usually moderate success, to solve organic pigment induced warpage. They range from adjusting process parameters, mould design changes, pre-treatment of pigments, to incorporation of additional additives. A review of literature in this research area showed that although some studies have been conducted to investigate the incorporation of nucleating agents to override nucleating effects of organic pigments on polypropylene, limited information of this sort exists for polyethylene. The specific mechanism behind nucleating agents overriding nucleation by organic pigments is also still unclear. Therefore, it is the aim of this research to study the influence of nucleating agents, based on potassium stearate and carboxylic acid salts, on the crystallisation and warpage behaviour of high density polyethylene containing copper phthalocyanine green pigment. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and Optical Microscopy (OM) will be employed to follow the crystallisation behaviour of the formulations and correlations between rate of crystallisation and shrinkage behaviour will also be made. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. Nucleation and Crystallisation of Semi-Crystalline Polymers 2.1.1. Crystallisation Mechanisms Crystallisation involves the formation of an ordered structure from a disordered phase, such as melt or dilute solution.[5] The crystallization process of polymers is thermodynamically driven. It is governed by change in Gibbs free energy, ΔG.[6] ΔG = ΔH TΔS (2-1) Where ΔH is change in enthalpy, T is absolute temperature and ΔS is change in entropy. When ΔG is negative, crystallisation is thermodynamically favourable. This occurs when loss of enthalpy upon crystallization exceeds the loss of entropy multiplied by absolute temperature. It can therefore be derived that as the absolute temperature of the system falls, the driving force of crystallisation will increase.[7] For a polymer to crystallise, it must conform to the following requirements:[8] Molecular structure must be regular enough to allow crystalline ordering Crystallisation temperature must be below melting point but not close to glass transition temperature Nucleation must occur before crystallisation Crystallisation rate should be sufficiently high A hundred percent crystallinity is not possible in polymers due to factors such as chain entanglements, viscous drag and branching. Thus they are termed ‘semi-crystalline. All semi-crystalline polymers exhibit a unique equilibrium melting temperature above which crystallites melt and below which a molten polymer starts to crystallise. The crystallisation of semi-crystalline polymers is a two-step process consisting crystal nucleation and crystal growth.[6] 2.1.2. Primary Nucleation Primary nucleation can be defined as the formation of short-range ordered polymer aggregations in melt which act as a focal centre around which crystallization can occur.[9] There are three mechanisms of primary nucleation, namely, homogeneous nucleation, heterogeneous nucleation and orientation induced nucleation.[10] 2.1.2.1. Homogeneous Nucleation Homogeneous nucleation involves the spontaneous creation of nucleus in a semi-crystalline polymer melt when it is cooled below its equilibrium melting temperature.[7] This process is termed as sporadic as nuclei are formed in timely succession.[11] Creation of nuclei occurs when statistical variation within a polymer melt results in the formation of ordered assemblies of chain segments larger than a critical size[7]; usually between 2-10nm.[11] Below this critical size, the nuclei are unstable and may be destroyed.[11] Generally, super-cooling to between 50-100Â °C below equilibrium melting temperature is minimally required to achieve true homogeneous nucleation.[12] The super-cooling is attributed to the energy barrier homogeneous nuclei are required to overcome to reach stability.[7]. When molecular segments pack next to each other to form an embryo, there is a change in free energy, ΔG, caused by two opposing mechanisms. The creation of new crystal surface increases free energy (ΔS is negative) while the reduction in volume of the system decreases free energy (Δ(U+pV) ≈ ΔH is negative). The two opposing mechanisms lead to a size-dependent free energy curve which defines critical nucleus size.[13] A small embryo has high surface to volume ratio and so ΔG is positive; in other words, crystal growth is not thermodynamically favourable.[13,14] However as nuclei grow, the surface to volume ratio decreases up to a point where volume change outweighs the creation of new surface and change in free energy decrease; crystal growth becomes increasingly probable. This point is defined as critical nuclei size and above this point, the energy barrier is overcome.[13,14] Eventually when ΔG becomes negative, nuclei are thermodynamically stable, pavi ng the way for further growth into lamellae or spherulites.[14] The minimum number of unit cells required to form a stable nuclei decrease when temperature decrease, due to a reduction in energy barrier. In other words, the rate of homogeneous nucleation increases when temperature of the polymer decreases.[7] 2.1.2.2. Heterogeneous Nucleation In practice, one usually observes heterogeneous nucleation and not homogeneous nucleation.[15] Heterogeneous nucleation involves the formation of nuclei on the surface of foreign bodies present in the molten phase of a semi-crystalline polymer. The foreign bodies can take the form of adventitious impurities such as dust particles or catalyst remnants, nucleating agents added on purpose or crystals of the same material already present in the molten phase (self-seeding).[7,8] The presence of foreign bodies greatly reduces the energy barrier for the formation of stable nuclei. This reason for this is, polymer molecules which solidify against pre-existing surfaces of foreign bodies create less new liquid/solid interface than the same volume of polymer molecules forming a homogeneous nucleus.[6] In turn, critical size of nuclei is smaller in heterogeneous nucleation as compared to homogenous nucleation so that heterogeneous nucleation always occurs at lower supercooling.[16] Foreign bodies with crystallographic spacings matching the semi-crystalline polymer are especially effective heterogeneous nucleating agents. Favorable nucleation sites include crystal grain boundaries, cracks, discontinuities and cavities.[7] 2.1.2.3. Orientation-Induced Nucleation Orientation-induced nucleation is caused by some degree of molecular alignment in the molten phase of a semi-crystalline polymer. Molecular alignment reduces the entropy difference between the molten and crystalline state of the polymer. This kind of nucleation is important in various processes such as fibre melt-spinning, film-forming and injection moulding. In these processes, polymer melt is sheared before and during crystallisation.[8,17] 2.1.3. Crystal Growth 2.1.3.1. Primary Crystallisation Primary crystallisation occurs when melt of a semi-crystalline polymer is cooled below its equilibrium melting temperature. It involves molecular segments depositing onto the growing face of crystallites or nuclei. The resultant crystal growth occurs along the a and b axes, relative to the polymers unit cell. These additions of molecular segments can occur through two mechanisms: tight fold adjacent re-entry or independent deposition (illustrated in Figure 2.3).[6] Tight fold adjacent re-entry requires that chain stems be laid down continuously from a single polymer molecule in a series of hairpin bends until its length is exhausted. This single molecule is thought to be ‘reeled in from surrounding molten material.[7] This mechanism requires that molecular motions along the polymer molecules contour length to be several times faster than the rate of crystal growth. On the other hand, the independent deposition mechanism only requires localized motion of molecular segments. Molecular segments only need to re-organise sufficiently to align with molecular segments at the crystallite face.[6] tight fold adjacent re-entry independent deposition[6] 2.1.3.2. Secondary Crystallisation After a semi-crystalline polymer is cooled to room temperature, crystallisation is still thermodynamically favourable but restricted by the low mobility of molecular segments in its amorphous regions. Over an extended period of time, which can span from hours to weeks, re-arrangement of molecular segments within amorphous regions can lead to further crystal growth. This process is defined as secondary crystallisation. Secondary crystallisation can take two forms; either thickening of pre-existing crystallites by re-organisation of amorphous chain segments adjacent to crystallite surface or creation of new crystallites by re-organisation of amorphous chain segments in interstitial regions between pre-existing crystallites. [6] 2.1.4. Rate of Crystallisation The crystallisation of semi-crystalline polymers is a two-step process and therefore overall crystallisation rate is governed by both nucleation rate and crystal growth rate. Both factors are highly temperature dependent, as illustrated in Figure 2.4. When temperature is just below equilibrium melting point, there exists a meta-stable region where rate of nucleation is low as nuclei that are formed dissolve easily due to high thermal motions.[8] As super-cooling increases, thermodynamic conditions become more favourable and rate of nucleation increases and reaches a maximum near the glass transition temperature. On the other hand, kinetic conditions are less favourable as super-cooling causes viscosity to increase. This results in a shift in maximum rate of crystal growth to higher temperatures where viscosity decrease is balanced by formation of nuclei.[8,18] Overall crystallisation rate at a given temperature is usually expressed as the inverse of time needed for half of the crystals to grow in the polymer (1/ t1/2).[8] When crystallisation occurs under isothermal conditions, its progress can be expressed by the Avrami equation:[8] Xc(t) = 1 exp (-K.tn) (2-2) Where Xc(t) is the fraction of material transformed at time t, n is the Avrami exponent and K is the Avrami rate constant. Equation (2-2) may also be written as:[19] ln ( -ln |1-Xc(t)| ) = n ln (t) + ln K (2-3) So that n and K may be obtained by plotting ln ( -ln |1-Xc(t)| ) against ln (t); n is the slope while ln K is the y-intercept.[19] The value of the Avrami exponent, n, is dependent on mechanism of nucleation and geometry of crystal growth. Theoretical values of n corresponding to different nucleation modes and crystal growth shape are tabulated in Table 2.1.[19] Crystal Growth Shape Nucleation Mode Avrami Exponent (n) Rod Heterogeneous 1 Homogeneous 2 Disc Heterogeneous 2 Homogeneous 3 Sphere Heterogeneous 3 Homogeneous 4 Table 2.1: Relation between n and nucleation mode / crystal growth shape[19] When crystallisation occurs under constant-cooling-rate conditions, its progress can be expressed by the Ozawa equation:[8] Xc(t) = 1 exp (-Ä ¸(t) / Ï•m) (2-4) Where Ä ¸(t) is the Ozawa rate constant, Ï• is the constant cooling rate (- ÃŽ ´T/ÃŽ ´t) and m is the Ozawa exponent. Equation (2-4) may also be written as: ln ( -ln |1-Xc(t)| ) = m ln (t) + ln Ä ¸(t) (2-5) So that m and Ä ¸(t) may be obtained by plotting ln ( -ln |1-Xc(t)| ) against ln (t); m is the slope while ln Ä ¸(t) is the y-intercept. Qiu et al. combined the Avrami and Ozawa equations to make a connection between the Avrami and Ozawa exponents:[20] log Ï• = log F(T) a log t (2-6) Where a = n/m and the kinetic function F(T) = (Ä ¸(t) / K)1/m. At a given degree of crystallinity, a plot of log Ï• against log t will yield a and log F(T) as the slope and y-intercept respectively.[20] 2.2. High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) 2.2.1. Chemical Structure, Crystallisation Rate and Morphology High density polyethylene, HDPE, is a semi-crystalline polymer made up of repeat units (C2H4)n and has a general form as illustrated in Figure 2.5. It consists mainly of unbranched molecules with very few defects to disrupt its linearity or hinder crystalline packing. As such, HDPE has a high rate of crystallisation, degree of crystallinity and density (0.94-0.97 g/cm3).[7] Being a semi-crystalline polymer, HDPE exhibits a three-phase morphology consisting of submicroscopic crystals surrounded by a non-crystalline phase comprising a partially ordered layer adjacent to the crystals and disordered material in the intervening spaces. This is illustrated in Figure 2.6.[7] The unit cell of HDPE, defined as the smallest arrangement of its chain segments that can repeat in three dimensions to form a crystalline matrix, is orthorhombic; a cuboid with each of its axes having different lengths while the angles of adjoining faces are all 90Â °. Each unit cell is made up of two ethylene repeat units; a complete unit from one chain segment and parts of four others from surrounding chain segments.[7] Bank and Krim[21] reported that the a, b and c axes of a polyethylene unit cell are of dimensions 7.417, 4.945 and 2.547Ã… respectively. This is illustrated in Figure 2.7. orthogonal view, view along c-axis[7] HDPE unit cells pack together in a three dimensional array to form small crystals known as crystallites. Most commonly, crystallites of HDPE take the form of ‘lamellae; crystallites with a and b dimensions that are much greater than their c dimensions. Lamellae thicknesses are usually between 50 to 200Ã… while lateral dimensions can range from a few hundred angstroms to several millimetres. Figure 2.8 illustrates a HDPE lamella.[7] Various models have been proposed to explain the arrangement of molecular chains in lamellae. They include adjacent re-entry with tight folds, switchboard, loose loops and a model with combined features (illustrated in Figure 2.9). As molecular length of HDPE is known to be many times greater than lamellae thickness, all models indicate some form of chain folding. However, they differ in their specific nature of folding.[7] d) composite model[7] In HDPE, the most common large scale-structures composed of crystalline and non-crystalline regions are known as ‘spherulites. A spherulite consists of lamellae growing outward radially from a common nucleation site. As this growth advance into amorphous molten polymer, local inhomogeneities in concentrations of crystallisable segments will be encountered. This causes the folded chain fibrils to inevitable twist and branch. As illustrated in Figure 2.10a, a spherulite will resemble a sheaf in its early stage of development. Fanning out of the growing lamellae will subsequently produce a spherical structure but true spherical symmetry is never achieved due to impingement of neighbouring spherulites. This growth of spherulites also involves the segregation of non-crystalline materials into regions between lamellar ribbons. Thus the overall structure of a spherulite consists of twisted and branched lamellae with polymer chains mostly perpendicular to their long axis and amorphous regions (illustrated in Figure 2.10b).[22] 2.3. Organic Pigments 2.3.1. Copper Phthalocyanine Pigments: Copper Phthalocyanine Green Copper phthalocyanines are a class of organic pigments which dominate the sectors of blue and green coloration of polymers. This dominance can be attributed to desirable properties such as high tinctorial strength, bright hues, excellent light and weather fastness excellent heat stability and good chemical resistance.[23] In addition, in spite of its structural complexity, this class of pigments is inexpensive as they are manufactured in high yield from low cost starting materials.[24] The parent compound of copper phthalocyanine pigments is extremely easy to prepare; a phthalic acid derivative is condensed with a source of nitrogen such as urea and a copper salt such as cuprous chloride in the presence of a metal catalyst such as vanadium or molybdenum. This is usually done in organic solvents, at elevated temperatures (approximately 200Â °C) and sometimes under increased pressure. The resultant crude copper phthalocyanine (yields of over 90%) is purified commercially by one of several processes; salt attrition, solvent-free salt attrition, acid pasting and acid swelling.[3,25] Figure 2.11 illustrates the chemical structure of the copper phthalocyanine parent compound. It consists of a tetrabenzoporphyrazine nucleus containing a central copper atom. The planar molecule is in the form of a quadratic shape with length and thickness of 1.3nm and 0.34nm respectively.[27] This parent copper phthalocyanine compound, which is characterised by unsubstituted benzene rings, is used as blue pigment. Copper phthalocyanine blue is polymorphous and exists in five crystal forms. Out of the five, the two of commercial importance are the alpha and beta forms while the other three are distorted ÃŽ ± forms.[27] Different crystal forms bring about a variation in the blue shade. Alpha crystals exhibit a bright-red-shade blue while beta crystals exhibit a green-shade blue.[26] C.I. pigment green 7, b) C.I. pigment green 36 (3y), C.I. pigment green 36 (6y)[28] Copper phthalocyanine green, the pigment of interest in this project, is produced from the copper phthalocyanine blue by replacing the hydrogens on the four benzene rings with halogens. Unlike its blue counterpart, where variation of shade is achieved by modification of crystal form, variation in the green shade is controlled by degree of chlorination or bromination. Copper phthalocyanine green only has one known crystal form.[26] The two types of copper phthalocyanine green pigments are colour index (C.I.) pigment green 7 and colour index (C.I.) pigment green 36. C.I. pigment green 7 is a blue-shade green made by introducing thirteen to fifteen chlorine atoms to replace hydrogens in the benzene ring of the copper phthalocyanine blue molecule (illustrated in Figure 2.12(a)). C.I. pigment green 36 is a yellow-shade green made by gradual replacement of chlorine atoms in C.I. pigment green 7 with bromine atoms. The most brominated C.I. pigment green 36, known as 3y, has an extreme yello w shade (illustrated in Figure 2.12(c)) while the least brominated C.I. pigment green 36, 6y, has a much more bluish shade (illustrated in Figure 2.12(b)).[28] The outstanding tinctorial and fastness properties of both copper phthalocyanine green pigments allow their application under the harshest conditions. They can be used effectively in masstone tints and shades down to the very palest depth. Both green pigments can be processed at temperatures in excess of 260Â °C with little colour change. They have even better chemical and colour stability than copper phthalocyanine blues. On comparison, C.I. pigment green 7 is preferred over C.I. pigment green 36. The latter is weaker and more opaque and accounts for less than 5% of copper phthalocyanine greens used in the polymer industry.[3] 2.3.2. Effect of Copper Phthalocyanine Green and Other Organic Pigments on Properties and Crystallisation Behaviour of Moulded Polyolefins Although the combination of spectacular performance and low cost make copper phthalocyanine green ideal pigments, its use is not without challenges. It is widely known that copper phthalocyanine green and a few other pigments can cause unacceptable levels of shrinkage and warpage in moulded parts of polyolefins.[2,29] The problem persists even at pigment concentrations as low as 0.1% wt.[2] Shrinkage can be described as reduction in moulded part dimensions in reference to mould cavity dimensions.[30] Warpage is a measure of out-of-plane distortion and commonly arises from the relaxation of unbalanced residual stress in a moulded part or unbalanced shrinkage in flow and transverse direction.[30] The early work of Turturro et al.[2] demonstrated that this shrinkage and warpage phenomenon is only limited to organic pigments. It was reported that no distortion occurred in HDPE mouldings containing inorganic pigments such as BBS red (cadmium selenide), 21 M yellow (blend of PbCrO4, PbSO4 and PbMoO4) and 500 L yellow (complex of Ni and Ti). Findings from later studies by Bugnon et al.[31] and Suzuki Mizuguchi[29] are in good agreement. Suzuki Mizuguchi[29] reported similar observations when they incorporated inorganic pigments, TiO2, Fe2O3 and Cd Y into HDPE and PP. Using scanning electron microscopy, Bugnon et al.[31] were able to show that when inorganic pigments such as CdS or CrTiO4 are incorporated into HDPE, there is no interaction between pigment surface and polymer. The polymer essentially builds a cavity around the pigment. On the other hand, an organic pigment of diketo-pyrrolo-pyrrole chemistry was found to blend into the HDPE matrix. This led them to propose that in organic pigments do not induce shrinkage and warpage as their chemical constitutions and polar hydrophilic surfaces have no interactions with polymers and do not influence their crystallisation behaviour. It is generally agreed that the shrinkage and warpage of polyolefins induced by copper phthalocyanine green and other organic pigments is associated with the nucleating effect these compounds have on the polymers.[2,29,31] These compounds provide a foreign surface that reduces the free energy of formation of a new polymer nucleus.[27] Vonk[32] was one of the first few individuals who pointed out that organic pigments can act as nucleating agents for polyethylene. The nucleating effect of organic pigments on polyolefins has since been the focus of intensive studies over the years. The key literature identified from this research area is that produced by Koh[33] for Clariant (Singapore) Pte Ltd. Koh[33] studied the influence of C.I. pigment green 7 and C.I. pigment green 36 on the crystallisation and properties of HDPE. It was reported that the high level of differential shrinkage in HDPE mouldings incorporated with copper phthalocyanine greens was accompanied by increased crystallisat ion rate, increased peak / onset crystallisation temperature and reduced spherulite size. These findings clearly indicate that copper phthalocyanine green can act as a nucleating agent for HDPE. It was also reported that increasing pigment concentration will cause an increase in crystallisation rate and level of differential shrinkage. Kohs[33] findings are in line with those from similar studies carried out by Turturro et al.[2], Suzuki Mizuguchi[29] and Silberman et al.[34] Turturro et al.[2] observed a similar nucleating effect of copper phthalocyanine green on HDPE with the aid of depolarisation and dilatometry techniques. In addition, they found that the Avrami exponent value of HDPE decreases with increasing concentration of copper phthalocyanine green; which indicates a shift in morphology, away from the spherulitic one characteristic of pure polyethylene. They proposed that the strong nucleating effect of copper phthalocyanine green causes only the development of fibrils in HDPE, which subsequently do not organise into spherulites. Interestingly, they also found that pigments do not affect the absolute level of crystallinity in HDPE; implying that these compounds affect only the kinetics and not the thermodynamics of the crystallisation process.[2] Suzuki Mizuguchi[29] and Silberman et al.[34] showed that , apart from HDPE, copper phthalocyanine green can also act as a nucleating agent for PP. Moreover, Silberman et al.[34] found that the addition of copper phthalocyanine green into PP would increase its lamellar size and decrease the activation energy (Uact) of its crystallisation process. The explanation they put forward for these observations was based on the specific chemical structure of the pigment. The symmetry of nitrogen in the copper phthalocyanine green molecule, with an absence of complex structures was thought to promote the dynamic adsorption of PP molecules on the pigment surface and the subsequent crystallisation process. This will lead to the formation of a perfect crystal structure of large lamellar size. Together, the works from all three authors demonstrated that, besides copper phthalocyanine green, organic pigments of anthraquinone, perylene, quinacridone, copper phthalocyanine blue and condense azo chemistries can also act as nucleating agents for polyolefins.[ 2,29,34] At this point, with the aid of various papers, it is established that shrinkage and warpage of polyolefins induced by copper phthalocyanine green and other organic pigments are associated with these pigments serving as nucleating agents for the polymer. However the specific mechanism correlating nucleating effect and shrinkage or warpage has yet to be discussed. Both Turturro et al.[2] and Suzuki Mizuguchi[29] proposed the same explanation for this phenomenon. In a moulding process such as injection moulding, the quench rate is not the same at different parts of the polymer. Polymer melt in contact with mould walls crystallise and ‘freeze very quickly, which results in crystals of low perfection with polymer chains oriented in the direction of flow. This layer of imperfect crystals in turn impedes heat exchange between polymer melt in the core regions and the mould walls. As a result, polymer melt in the core regions cool slowly and give rise to regular crystals. As the surfac e ‘freezes very quickly, contraction in the core regions due to crystallisation will produce stress in the ‘frozen outer layer and cause distortion. In addition, relaxation of oriented regions after removal of polymer from the mould will also cause internal stress and lead to distortion. The presence of a strong nucleating agent such as copper phthalocyanine green will limit the time available for oriented chains to recover during cooling and also increase the thickness of the skin layer. Both factors will lead to more pronounced distortion.[2,29] Apart from altering the shrinkage and warpage behaviour of polyolefins, the nucleating effect of copper phthalocyanine green and other organic pigments is thought to also have a marked influence on the mechanical properties of polyolefins. An investigation of how certain organic pigments affect the mechanical properties of HDPE was undertaken by Lodeiro et al.[1] They found that tested pigments, copper phthalocyanine blue and irgalite yellow do affect the principal mechanical properties of HDPE. In particular, it was observed that the presence of small amounts of phthalocyanine blue in HDPE is sufficient to cause an increase in ductility, reduction in Youngs modulus (up to 10%), reduction in yield stress and increase in failure strain. They attributed these consequences to smaller and more numerous spherulites induced by the pigment; smaller spherulites in larger numbers, each surrounded by amorphous material, results in a polymer that will deform more readily and have lower yield st ress and higher failure strain. 2.4. Nucleating Agents 2.4.1. Heterogeneous Nucleation of Polyethylene: Nucleating Agents Based on Potassium Stearate and Carboxylic Acid Salts Nucleating agents have traditionally been added to semi-crystalline polymers to enhance processing and end product characteristics. The incorporation of these compounds results in shorter cycle time as they increase the crystallization rate of semi-crystalline polymers, ensuring faster solidification from the melt upon cooling. Their addition also results in the formation of smaller spherulites in semi-crystalline polymers. This change in spherulite size improves mechanical properties (such as tensile strength, hardness and modulus) and optical properties (such as haze and transparency).[8,35] Polyethylene, and in particular high density polyethylene, has an extremely fast rate of crystallization, which makes it very hard to nucleate.[8,35] This is probably the reason why little has been published on its nucleating agents. That being said, a handful of nucleating agents have been identified to date. Together, the works of Solti et al. and Ge et al. showed that benzoic acid, talc and Na2CO3 can effectively nucleate polyethylene.[8] Besides the use of particulate or low molecular weight nucleating agents, polyethylene can also be nucleated by epitaxial crystallization on another polymer substrate. Loos et al. was able to demonstrate the melt crystallisation of LLDPE on oriented HDPE.[8] Potassium stearate is another nucleating agent tha

Travel And Tourism Industry Of Greece Tourism Essay

Travel And Tourism Industry Of Greece Tourism Essay Greece is one of the most popular destinations in the world. Greece comes in the 15th place in the world rating of tourist destinations, since, according to the National Statistical Service of Greece, it receives more than 15 million tourists every year, after countries such as the USA, China, Spain and Great Britain. According to the 2009 Travel Tourism Competitiveness Report published by the World Economic Forum, Greece holds the 24th overall position among 133 countries, 3rd place in the prioritization of travel tourism subindex, 9th place in the number of World Heritage cultural sites, 5th place in tourism infrastructure and 1st place in the physician density subindex.. Demand Supply: Total demand: The number of international tourism visit over has been steady increase from 14.2 million in 2004 to 17 million in 2008. It is expected to reach 20 million in next few years, almost twice the countrys population. Tourist Arrivals http://www.investingreece.gov.gr/files/sectors/charts/tourism/tourism_arrivals1_en.jpg Source: Greek National Tourism Organization and National Statistical Services of Greece Key markets Source regions Greece has today managed to become one of the most favourite tourist destinations among Europeans, Asians and Americans. Approximately 85% of arrivals originate in Western Europe: 21.2% from the United Kingdom, 17.5% from Germany, 8.8% from Italy, 5.3% from France, 5.2% from Holland, and 7.5% from the Scandinavian countries. However, significant numbers of visitors from Eastern Europe, USA and China are making Greece their preferred destination. According to a survey conducted in China in 2005, Greece was voted as the Chinese peoples number one choice as a tourist destination. In November 2006, Austria, like China, announced that Greece was the favourite tourist destination for its citizens. It creates a wider base of origin countries and new demands for services, facilities, and attractions. Supply: Currently, more than 9,000 hotels operate in Greece. According to the Hellenic Chamber of Hotels, the number of hotels in Greece was by classification (bedplaces): Star rating Number Beds 5 star 176 64,913 4 star 994 176,631 3 star 1,804 163,077 2 star 4,460 231,333 1 star 1,677 57,298 Total 9,111 693,252 535 hotels were built under Development Law 3299/04 in the period of 2005 to 2009 in Greece, with a total budget of à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ 2.6 bn, 44% (à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ ~1.2 bn.) of which was subsidized by the government. The number of beds added through these investments is approximately 50,000. The breakdown per hotel category is as follows: Below are key statistics about cost per room and subsidies paid out by the government, per hotel category The Greek government has announced plans for a new Development Law, providing financial incentives for investment in Greece in the form of extensive tax breaks and subsidies of up to 50%. Economic Impacts GDP Contribution: Greeces TT Direct Industry is expected to contribute 7.0% to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 2010 (EUR15.4bn or US$22.8bn), rising in nominal terms to EUR27.9bn or US$36.4bn (8% of total) by 2020. The TT Economy contribution (% of total) should rise from 15.5% (EUR33.9bn or US$50.2bn) to 17.3% (EUR60.7bn or US$79.1bn) in this same period. Employment Greeces 418,000 TT Direct Industry jobs account for 10% of total employment in 2010 and are forecast to total 483,000 jobs or 11.1% of the total by 2020.The contribution of the Travel Tourism Economy to employment is expected to rise from 18.8% of total employment, 785,000 jobs or 1 in every 5.3 jobs in 2010, to 21% of total employment, 916,000 jobs, or 1 in every 4.8 jobs by 2020. Industry Challenges Greek travel and tourism is affected by economic crisis in 2009 The number of arrivals to Greece was decreased affected by the 2009 economic crisis. In Q3 2010 number of international arrival in Athens drop by 5.2% in compare to 2009 leading to a ytd drop of 5.3% The RevPAR in Athens dropped by -11.3% in Q3 leading to a ytd drop in the RevPAR of -6%. The RevPAR in Thessaloniki continued its sharp drop, -22% Resort hotels, however, showed a significant improvement in their Total RevPAR, by 5.1%, leading to a reversal of the previously negative trend in the ytd figure, which improved by 4.4%, compared to -4.0% in Q2. Therefore, fears that Greek tourism would collapse this year did not materialise. Greece 2010 debt crisis The Greece debt crisis, which started at the beginning of 2010, exacerbated the effects of the global economic crisis on the Greek travel and tourism industry. The debt crisis will certainly affect consumer confidence in the country and is expected to negatively impact outbound and domestic tourist flows in 2010, especially as the bailout has involved the European Union combined with the IMF. Other difficulties expected: The further increase of the VAT on hospitality services to 11% from July 1st, 2010 (from 9% at the beginning of the year) will have a negative impact on the profitability of the industry overall, particularly in combination with the price reductions taking place due to current market conditions. The Hotel Federation and the Hotel Employees Union have announced that they have reached a 3 year agreement on labour relations; salary increases will be 1% in 2010 and a further 1% in 2012. Industry Competitiveness: Most of the hotels in Greece are categorized as 1- and 2-starhotels, meaning there is plenty of room for investors to establish 4-and 5-star properties. According to the Greek Hotel Branding Report, branded hotels in Greece account for 4% of the total number of hotels and 19% of total availability of rooms, while in other European countries this figure lies between 25 and 40%. Infrastructure Infrastructure in Greece is very developed with 40 airports throughout Greece of which 15 are international and well-designed national highway system. Investment Incentives Law: Greeces newly implemented PPP (Public Private Partnership) scheme provides significant opportunities to investors to participate in new infrastructure projects, including marinas and thermal springs. The National Strategic Reference Framework (NSRF) for the years 2007-2013 establishes the broad priorities for EU Structural Funds Programmes in Greece. For tourism, NSRF provides significant financial support, with a budget of more than 500 million Euros until 2013 A draft Investment Law has been issued by the government including financial incentives in the form of subsidies up to 50% or equivalent incentives in the form of tax breaks for companies carrying out new investments or buying assets of companies that have seized operations. Human Resources Because Greece, a country of 11 million inhabitants, hosts more than 17 million visitors, education and training in tourism services is paramount. The workforce is multilingual, well versed in the tourism sector, and willing to respond to new challenges. From management to catering, human resources for tourism enterprises is a Greek strength. Hotel Chain Project Company background : Starwood Hotels Resorts Worldwide, Inc. is one of the largest hotel companies in the world. As of December 31, 2009, Starwood Hotel Resorts Worldwide, Inc owned, managed or franchised 992 properties under its nine owned brands. It has 145,000 employees worldwide, of whom approximately 34% were employed in the United States. W Hotels is Starwoods luxury boutique hotel brand. The hotel brand, which generally markets towards a younger crowd, was launched in 1998 with its first property, W New York. The brand has expanded internationally with properties opening first in Mexico City, Seoul, and Istanbul. The W Barcelona hotel was the Ws first in Western Europe and opened in October 2009. The W plans to double its number of properties by 2011 with hotels planned in Austin, Texas (2010); Taipei, Taiwan (2010); Marrakech, Morocco (2011); Guangzhou, China (2011); Bangkok, Thailand (2011); Paris, France (2011); Athens, Greece (2011); St. Petersburg, Russia (2011); and London, England (2011) Investment project: W Athens Astir Palace Beach is going to open on 1 April 2012. It is a part of Astir Palace Resort beside Arion, a Luxury Collection Resort Spa and The Westin Athens. W Athens is converted from the 165-room Aphrodite Hotel under an extensive refurbishment. Sustainable Concerns : Fearing the spread of Greek debt crisis, the EU and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) have agreed to launch a bailout package worth nearly $ 1,000 billion. However, the key issue here is not just saving Greece from a short-term debt crisis, or cut the budget deficit of the Greek government, but the country economics growth in future According to the ease of doing business index of the World Bank (WB), Greece is ranked 109, after countries such as Egypt, Ethiopia and Lebanon. In rating the business environment of high-income countries, Greece is almost bottom, just above Equatorial Guinea The Euros is stronger than the currency of other countries those are not in Eurozone, therefore cost to travel in Greece is more expensive. However, Greece does not have enough luxury hotels, golf courses, and resort for that difference in cost Expensive prices of goods and service in Greece created by the strength of euro, has weakened the countrys competitiveness on international market. This problem will become worse if the labor productivity of countries such as Germany and France growing constantly and increase value of the euro. It will push the price of Greek exports higher that market realities. Greece should change to another currency that is weaker than Euro to increase their competitiveness. Cà ³ mà ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â€ž ¢t già ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ £i phà ¡p khà ´ng dà ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ dà  ng Ä‘Ã ¡Ã‚ »Ã†â€™ Hy Là ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¡p thoà ¡t khà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ i tà ¬nh trà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¡ng tià ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¿n thoà ¡i lÆ °Ãƒ ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ¡ng nan nà  y. Ä Ãƒ ³ là   tà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¡o ra mà ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â€ž ¢t và ²ng xoà ¡y già ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ £m phà ¡t già ¡ cà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ £ và   tià ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ n lÆ °Ãƒâ€ Ã‚ ¡ng. NhÆ °ng, ngÆ °Ãƒ ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ i dà ¢n Hy Là ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¡p thà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ i gian qua Ä‘Ã £ lià ªn tà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ¥c Ä‘Ã ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ ra Ä‘Æ °Ãƒ ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ng Ä‘Ã ¡Ã‚ »Ã†â€™ gà ¢y à ¡p là ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ±c buà ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â€ž ¢c chà ­nh phà ¡Ã‚ » duy trà ¬ chà ­nh sà ¡ch tià ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ n lÆ °Ãƒâ€ Ã‚ ¡ng và   phà ºc là ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ £i, do Ä‘Ã ³, vià ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬ ¡c à ¡p dà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ¥ng bià ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬ ¡n phà ¡p già ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ £m phà ¡t sà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ½ khà ³ duy trà ¬ Ä‘Æ °Ãƒ ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ £c trong bà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¥t kà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ³ trÆ °Ãƒ ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ng hà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ £p nà  o. Chà ­nh phà ¡Ã‚ » Hy Là ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¡p ngà  y 23/12 Ä‘Ã £ thà ´ng qua kà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¿ hoà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¡ch ngà ¢n sà ¡ch khà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¯c khà ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ 2011 nhà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ±m Ä‘Ã ¡p à ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ©ng nhà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ¯ng Ä‘ià ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ u kià ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬ ¡n khà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¯t khe do Lià ªn minh chà ¢u Âu (EU) và   QÃ…Â ©y tià ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ n tà ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬ ¡ quà ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬Ëœc tà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¿ (IMF) Ä‘Æ °a ra Ä‘Ã ¡Ã‚ »Ã†â€™ nhà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ­n Ä‘Æ °Ãƒ ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ £c gà ³i cà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ©u trà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ £ tà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ « cà ¡c tà ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ chà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ©c nà  y. Kà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¿ hoà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¡ch nà  y Ä‘Ã £ Ä‘Æ °Ãƒ ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ £c quà ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬Ëœc hà ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â€ž ¢i Hy Là ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¡p thà ´ng qua và ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬ ºi 156 phià ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¿u à ¡Ã‚ »ng hà ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â€ž ¢ và   142 phià ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¿u phà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ £n Ä‘Ã ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬Ëœi. Thà ¡Ã‚ » tÆ °Ãƒ ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬ ºng Hy Là ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¡p Georges Papandrà ©ou hi và ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ng rà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ±ng, kà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¿ hoà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¡ch nà  y thà ¡Ã‚ »Ã†â€™ hià ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬ ¡n sà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ± quyà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¿t tà ¢m thà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ±c hià ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬ ¡n nhà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ¯ng bià ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬ ¡n phà ¡p cà ¡Ã‚ ºn thià ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¿t Ä‘Ã ¡Ã‚ »Ã†â€™ Ä‘Æ °a kinh tà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¿ Hy Là ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¡p thoà ¡t khà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ i khà ¡Ã‚ »ng hoà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ £ng. Theo Ä‘Ã ³, ngà ¢n sà ¡ch năm 2011 sà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ½ già ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ £m tà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ « mà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ©c 9,4% tà ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ng sà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ £n phà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ©m quà ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬Ëœc nà ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â€ž ¢i (GDP) dà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ± kià ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¿n năm nay xuà ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬Ëœng cà ²n 7,4%. Và   trong 3 năm tià ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¿p theo, nÆ °Ãƒ ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬ ºc nà  y  phà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¥n Ä‘Ã ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¥u già ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ £m thà ¢m hà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ¥t xuà ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬Ëœng cà ²n 3%. Vià ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬ ¡c cà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¯t già ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ £m sà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ½ tà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ­p trung và  o lÄ ©nh và ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ±c cà ´ng, bao gà ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬Å"m: y tà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¿, già ¡o dà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ¥c, cà ´ng trà ¬nh cà ´ng cà ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â€ž ¢ng nhÆ ° Ä‘Æ °Ãƒ ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ng sà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¯t và   cà ¡c loà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¡i hà ¬nh và ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ­n tà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ £i khà ¡c.

Reconstruction of the South in Smith’s Killers of the Dream Essay

Reconstruction of the South in Smith’s Killers of the Dream â€Å"Something was wrong with a world that tells you that love is good and people are important and then forces you to deny love and to humiliate people.† P. 39 This single short quote from the first section of Lillian Smith’s Killers of the Dream is a perfect summation of the changing world many Southerners were facing as they approached the 20th Century. Gone were the days of plantation homes, housewives overseeing 50 black slaves, and many of the ideals that this lifestyle carried with it. As the Civil War ended and Reconstruction worked its way through the South, much was uprooted. This change was hard for this â€Å"landed aristocracy.† However, it was equally hard on the children. This quote from page 39 demonstrates why this change was so hard for children. It was hard for children to grow up watching their parents have slaves, abuse these slaves, and then 10 years later watch these slaves rise up as free men and women. After the emancipation of slaves, southern parents reluctantly taught their children that the...

Child Victimization Essay -- Social Issues, Child Abuse

According to Finkelhor et al (2005), the increasing rates of child victimization over the last few decades have created a global attention on child abuse. With these increasing rates, most countries all over the world have begun to address this situation. Most countries have enacted laws that classify child victimization cases as criminal offenses punishable according to the provisions of the law (Finkelhor et al, 2005). As noted by Giardino (2010), the increasing prevalence and consequences of child abuse calls for detailed researches and investigations across the world. This research paper explores the controversial topic on child victims. The paper describes the major types of child abuse, the extent of the problem, intergenerational transmission of violence, theories regarding child abuse, and the special types of child abuse. Types of Child Abuse Child abuse as described by Giardino (2010) refers to the aspect of causing or allowing the causation of any offensive contact that can be termed as harmful to the body of a child. Further, Giardino (2010) defines it as the use of offensive communication that may harm the child, shame him, or offend him. In a psychological perspective, child abuse can be termed as an act that omits several procedures in the development of the child (Giardino, 2010). The Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act that has been enacted in the U.S. describes child abuse as, â€Å"at a minimum, any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker, which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation, or an act or failure to act which presents an imminent risk of serious harm† (Giardino, 2010). Physical Child Abuse Physical child abuse is the most com... ...vent every case of child abuse, but we can be alert and informed about child abuse and learn the signs of it. As a society, people need to be aware that child abuse occurs across all economical borders. Children as we know are very active injure themselves while playing. These injures are explainable verses injuries that cannot be explained by the parent. The main goal is that teachers, doctors, ect. should be able to distinguish between normal injury and non-accidental injury. Identifying early signs of child abuse can save the child’s life. Each cases of child abuse should be investigated thoroughly by a professional who can determine if they child is being abused or not. Child abuse is a traumatic experience for the child and can have lasting effects. That’s why it is very important that the child has immediate access to counseling and other forms of therapy.

The Trinity: The Oneness of God

Before I try to explain an infinite God with my finite brain, I will bring this verse to mind: Proverbs 3:5-7 states, †Trust in the Lord with all your heart and lean not on your own understanding; in all your ways acknowledge Him, and he will make your paths straight. Do not be wise in your own eyes; fear the Lord and shun evil. † So, with this in mind, I will attempt to explain the Trinity. The best way to explain the Trinity is not with a statement, but with a question. If l were to take an egg, and crack the shell in half, and then use a strainer to separate the white and the yoke, then, if I set all three parts down separately on the counter, there would be three different things, with three completely unique characteristics. The shell is the protective coat, the white is the nutrition for the growing chicken, and the yoke is the thick protein substance that becomes the chicken. The question, then, is: Which one is the egg? Most people would probably want to say. Well, the yoke is the most important, and therefore it is the egg. † However, it is not the most important, because all three are essential to bringing life. Without the yoke there could be no chicken. Without the white, it could never survive, and without the shell, it is breakfast. So then, the egg is all three put into one. There is only one egg, but it consists of three parts. I believe that examples such as the egg, and other examples such as electrons, protons, and neutrons, r eveal the characteristics of God Almighty. The properties found throughout the Universe in Quantum Physics, etc. , show that things are consistently made of sets of three–the very substance of our matter, things smaller than electrons, protons, and neutrons are built on sets of three. I and many others believe that these attributes are all the fingerprint of God, revealing His divine characteristics. Paul even before we saw such evidences in nature said: For since the creation of the world God's invisible qualities– his eternal power and divine nature– have been clearly seen, being understood from what as been made, so that men are without excuse (Rom 1:20, NIV). Of what our finite brains can understand, God is much like the egg, only on an infinite scale. God is three unique persons, known as The Father, The Son, and The Holy Spirit. Very clearly, throughout the Bible, God declares that there is only one God, see Isaiah 44:6, and yet all three are referred to as God. In Revelation 1:17-18, Jesus takes th e same title of First and Last that God the Father declared for Himself in the passage in Isaiah. How many firsts and lasts can there be?. Then, in 2 Corinthians 3:17, the Spirit is identified as the Lord, and we know then, that he must be one with Christ, for in 1 Corinthians 8:6, Paul states that there is only one Lord, Jesus Christ. It also speaks of reaping eternal life from the Spirit, Galatians 6:8, which puts Him in equality with God, for only God can give eternal life. Like the egg, each part, member, form, or â€Å"person† (for lack of any sufficient words) of the Trinity has His own unique features, but if you took one away, a vital piece would be missing. The Father loves the Son (John 3:35), the Son loves the Father, The Spirit loves Them both and vice versa. This is why God is not an egoist. During His life on earth, Christ always pointed the finger toward God the Father, to glorify Him. Then, after the resurrection, The Father gave His glory to Christ, and whenever you see the Holy Spirit at work, He will always focus the attention to what Christ did on the cross. They work together in perfect unity, for they are One, but they are distinct in the actions and characteristics that we see. One of the most unique examples, however, that God has given us of His own divine nature, of His own Oneness, is that of marriage: Then God said, â€Å"Let us make man in our image, in our likeness, and let them rule over the fish of the sea and the birds of the air, over the livestock, over all the earth, and over all the creatures that move along the ground. † So God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he created them (Gen 1:26-27, NIV). God is not alone even though He was before anything; He was never alone. When He created man, He said that it was â€Å"not good for man to be alone,† and created a â€Å"help-meet† (Strong's #5828, 5048), an ally or helper suitable for man (Gen. :18). And scripture declares, â€Å"For this reason a man will leave his father and mother and be united to his wife, and they will become one flesh† (Gen 2:24, NIV). In this simple aspect, God's infinite and divine Oneness is foreshadowed by the example of marriage that God has given us. However, marriage is but a glimpse–a picture–a shadow, of th e Oneness that is found in the Trinity. We were created in His image, but we are but a vague reflection. Amazingly, through marriage, we learn to be unselfish, to serve another person, to become one with another person. God longed to teach us of His own Oneness, and through marriage, we can get a glimpse into the Awesomeness of God. In marriage, the husband learns to lay down his life for his wife as Christ laid down His life for the church, and the wife learns to submit to her husband like Christ submitted to the Father, and said, â€Å"†¦ yet not my will, but Yours be done† (Luke 22:42, NIV) when He suffered on the cross. So, each spouse learns to die to their own desires for the sake of their spouse, and through this we are taught of the Oneness of God. A marriage done the right way, teaches each spouse of the Oneness and the unselfish nature of God Himself. We truly are fearfully and wonderfully made (Ps. 139:14) in the image of our God (Gen. 1:27). Therefore, if you want to understand the Oneness of God, get married and lay down your life for your spouse. Lay down your selfish desires, learn to serve someone else's desires above your own, and then you will catch a small glimpse at our infinite God. Do not take what I have said to turn marriage into a â€Å"form of† the Trinity, for it is not the same thing, for it is finite and temporary. Rather, marriage is but shadow, a reflection, a glimpse into the Eternal, a glimpse at â€Å"I AM THAT I AM, The Almighty God. † We were created in His image, but we weren't replicas. God is infinite, uncreated, and we will forever be finite and created beings, can something created become an uncreated eternal being–I think not. Only God â€Å"was, is, and is to come. † However, through the things that God has given us, we can see His divine characteristics in the world around us and in the examples that God has made to reveal to His creation the loving, unselfish God that He is. FootNotes I have put only a few verses above, and have not made the best argument for the Trinity since my goal is not proving the â€Å"existence of,† but in helping with the â€Å"understanding of. † If you struggle with whether or not the Trinity is taught in scripture, I can only say to read the Bible a lot, and pray that the Spirit will give you understanding. Read 1 Corinthians 2:6-16. Some verses that may be helpful are Isaiah 43-46, where God constantly says that there is only one God–Period. Then, John 1:1-14, which is one of the most self explanatory passages–â€Å"†¦ and the Word was with God and the Word was God†¦ and the Word became flesh. Isaiah 44:24 says that the Father alone stretched out the Heavens, but Christ is also acredited with the same work, so how was he alone unless they are one. Other points of interest would be Isaiah 43:10, John 10:30, Mal. 2:10, Col. 2:9, Col. 2:10 (God the Father is given credit for raising Christ, but elsewhere, Christ credits Himself with the power to raise himself from the dead–Matt. 26:61, John 2:19) {Acts 5:31, Isaiah 43:11-12, Isaiah 45:21-22}. Now, these are just some of the verses that I compiled in about 10 minutes doing key word searches. Reading the Bible, I have found innumerable verses that reveal the Trinity.

Radiation Therapy

1. What concepts in the chapter are illustrated in this case? What ethical issues are raised by radiation technology? Basic concepts that are covered in this case are responsibility, accountability and liability. Ethical issues that are raised by radiation technology is when scientist is finding ways to use radiation therapy to destroy cancerous cells while making sure that healthy cells are not being harmed. An incident occurred where Mr. Jerome-Parks â€Å"experienced deafness and near-blindness, ulcers in his mouth and throat, persistent nausea, and severe pain. (Laudon, 2012, p. 131). Organizations did not take the time to properly train doctors and medical technicians therefore incidents like Jerome-Parks happens. The machines that are used to ‘cure’ patients are not being appropriately updated and watch carefully. In this case study we can see that the technicians are not being fully responsible and being careless, and doctors that are not getting the full trainin g for operating the machine. 2. What management, organization and technology factors that was responsible for the problems detailed in this case?The management, organization and technology factors were responsible for the problems detailed in this case because they failed to provide extensive training for doctors, technicians, and machine operations as well as insufficient staffs. They should have thought of creating a mandatory checklist for employees each time the machine was being used. The lack of knowledge on the machines, the lack of reporting these incidents for future references instead the doctors and technicians do not troubleshoot the problem unless it is serious and by that time the patient(s) is already injured.The machines were not well designed, there was software glitch and â€Å"the complexity of new Linear accelerator technology has not been accompanied by with appropriate updates in software† (Laudon, 2012, p. 132). 3. Do you feel that any of the groups inv olved with this issue (hospital administrators, technicians, medical equipment, and software manufacturers) should accept the majority of the blame for these incidents? I feel as if they are all responsible for this issue because if the medical equipment, software manufacturer and technicians were the first people who would be experiencing the machine.The software manufacturer designed the software so they should have known if there was any error that was missed during the trial and error stage. If there was they should’ve continued with more research until the software was nearly perfect because it is what operated the entire machine. The software was the main source of machine to operate because those software engineers were hired for a reason and they had responsibility in executing the errors and debugging them. This also would go on to the medical equipment and technicians because these technicians should already have knowledge on what is right and what is wrong.Technici ans are the one that tries out the machine at the hospital first they are the one that have the main knowledge on how these machines should be operating. All these three should be responsible for this issue since they are part in creating the machine and testing it out. 4. How would a central reporting agency that gathered data on radiation-related accidents help reduce the number of radiation therapy errors in the future? Having a central reporting agency that gathered data of radiation-related accidents could prevent future overdoses, misadministration, and deaths or near deaths.These data can train future and present doctors from doing these incidents, allows the agency to monitor the use of the machine and especially creates a safety environment. If these accidents were to occur more than once than the managers are the MIS could take in the machines for a more detailed examination, changing the policy and procedures. Also reporting the radiation therapy errors can used to teach future doctors, technicians, medical operators about it so they would not make the same mistake again. At the same time this can save many lives that was once put into danger due to the lack of knowledge, carelessness, and laziness. . If you were in charge of designing electronic software for a linear accelerator, what are some features you would include? Are there any features you would avoid? If I were in charge of designing electronic software for a linear accelerator some features I would include: a check list that is embedded within the machine ensuring that everything goes smoothly, a safety button which allows the machine to alert the doctor or technicians that something went wrong and will automatically shut down if the machine seems to malfunction that can do harm to a patient.Making sure that the software is doing its job in saving people’s lives, the software will go through multiple of examination until it is working at its potential. Every time the system seems t o malfunction it will be sent back to the manufacturing for fixing. I would avoid what happened to those patients that died because of the manufacturer’s error. Anything that was at fault will be avoided and things will be done properly and precisely to ensure every part of the machine is working. Work Cited Laudon, Kenneth and Laudon, Jane. (2012). Management Information Systems: Managing the digital film (5th ed. ). Pearson Education Canada.